Email this article 
Long distance triathlon: Demands, preparation and performance
Abstract
The rise in worldwide popularity of long distance triathlon racing comes with it an increased interest into how to train and prepare optimally for such an event. This paper examines the physiologic and bioenergetic demands of long distance triathlon racing, including energy requirements, muscle damage consequences, thermoregulatory demands and water turnover rates. In response to these physiological challenges, the second part of the paper describes the training goals and race practices that may assist to minimize these disturbances, in turn, optimizing performance and health for the long distance triathlete. Some of these race strategies include appropriate pacing, ensuring adequate fluid and carbohydrate consumption, acclimating to the heat, and consuming caffeine in appropriate quantities.
Keywords
References
Abbiss, C.R., Laursen, P.B. Describing and understanding pacing strategies during athletic competition. Sports Med. 2008; 38(3):239-52. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200838030-00004
Abbiss, C.R., Quod, M.J., Martin, D.T., Netto, K.J., Nosaka, K., Lee, H., Surriano, R., Bishop, D., Laursen, P.B. Dynamic pacing strategies during the cycle phase of an Ironman triathlon. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006; 38(4):726-34. https://doi.org/10.1249/01.mss.0000210202.33070.55
Armstrong, L.E., Casa, D.J., Millard-Stafford, M., Et Al. American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Exertional heat illness during training and competition. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007; 39:556–72. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e31802fa199
Bentley, D.J., Cox, G.R., Green, D., Laursen, P.B. Maximising performance in triathlon: applied physiological and nutritional aspects of elite and non-elite competitions. J Sci Med Sport. 2008;11(4):407-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2007.07.010
Billat, V.L., Flechet, B., Petit, B., Muriaux, G., Koralsztein, J.P. Interval training at VO2max: effects on aerobic performance and overtraining markers. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1999; 31(1):156-63. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-199901000-00024
Brouns, F. Heat-sweat-dehydration-rehydration: a praxis oriented approach. J Sports Sci. 1991; 9:143-152. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640419108729871
Burke, L.M. Fueling strategies to optimize performance: training high or training low? Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2010; 20(2):48-58. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.01185.x
Burke, L.M. Nutrition strategies for the marathon: fuel for training and racing. Sports Med. 2007; 37(4-5):344-7. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200737040-00018
Burke, L.M. Caffeine and sports performance. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2008; 33(6):1319-34. https://doi.org/10.1139/H08-130
Coffey, V.G., Hawley, J.A. The molecular bases of training adaptation. Sports Med. 2007; 37(9):737-63. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200737090-00001
Coggan, A.R., Raguso, C.A., Gastaldelli, A., Sidossis, L.S., Yeckel, C.W. Fat metabolism during high-intensity exercise in endurance-trained and untrained men. Metabolism. 2000; 49(1):122-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0026-0495(00)90963-6
Convertino, V.A., Armstrong, L.E., Coyle, E.F., Et Al. American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Exercise and fluid replacement. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1996; 28:i–vii. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-199610000-00045
Desbrow, B., Leveritt, M. Awareness and use of caffeine by athletes competing at the 2005 Ironman Triathlon World Championships. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2006; 16(5):545-58. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.16.5.545
Ebbeling, C.B., Clarkson, P.M. Exercise-induced muscle damage and adaptation. Sports Med. 1989; 7(4):207-34. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-198907040-00001
Eichner, E.R. The role of sodium in 'heat cramping'. Sports Med. 2007; 37:368-70. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200737040-00024
Farber, H.W., Schaefer, E.J., Franey, R., Grimaldi, R., Hill, N.S. The endurance triathlon: metabolic changes after each event and during recovery. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1991; 23(8):959-65. https://doi.org/10.1249/00005768-199108000-00013
Gillum, T.L., Dumke, C.L., Ruby, B.C. Muscle glycogenolysis and resynthesis in response to a half Ironman triathlon: a case study. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2006; 1(4):408-13. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.1.4.408
Gollnick, P.D. Metabolism of substrates: energy substrate metabolism during exercise and as modified by training. Fed Proc. 1985; 44(2):353-7.
Gulbin, J.P., Gaffney, P.T. Ultraendurance triathlon participation: typical race preparation of lower level triathletes. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 1999; 39(1):12-5.
Hawley, J.A., Spargo, F.J. Metabolic adaptations to marathon training and racing. Sports Med. 2007; 37(4-5):328-31. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200737040-00014
Hawley, J.A. Adaptations of skeletal muscle to prolonged, intense endurance training. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 2002; 29:218-22. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1681.2002.03623.x
Hawley, J.A., Hopkins, W.G. Aerobic glycolytic and aerobic lipolytic power systems. A new paradigm with implications for endurance and ultraendurance events. Sports Med. 1995; 19(4):240-50. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-199519040-00002
Hew-Butler, T., Jordaan, E., Stuempfle, K.J., Et Al. Osmotic and nonosmotic regulation of arginine vasopressin during prolonged endurance exercise. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008; 93:2072–2078. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2007-2336
Hew-Butler, T., Collins, M., Bosch, A., Sharwood, K., Wilson, G., Armstrong, M., Jennings, C., Swart, J., Noakes, T. Maintenance of plasma volume and serum sodium concentration despite body weight loss in ironman triathletes. Clin J Sport Med. 2007; 17(2):116-22. https://doi.org/10.1097/JSM.0b013e3180326836
Hew-Butler, T.D., Sharwood, K., Collins, M., Speedy, D., Noakes, T. Sodium supplementation is not required to maintain serum sodium concentrations during an Ironman triathlon. Br J Sports Med. 2006; 40(3):255-9. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2005.022418
Hiller, W.D., O'toole, M.L., Fortess, E.E., Laird, R.H., Imbert, P.C., Sisk, T.D. Medical and physiological considerations in triathlons. Am J Sports Med. 1987; 15(2):164-7. https://doi.org/10.1177/036354658701500212
Jeukendrup, A.E., Gleeson, M. Sport Nutrition: An Introduction to Energy Production and Performance. Champaign: Human Kinetics Publishers; 2010.
Jeukendrup, A.E. Carbohydrate and exercise performance: the role of multiple transportable carbohydrates. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2010; 13(4):452-7. https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0b013e328339de9f
Kimber, N.E., Ross, J.J., Mason, S.L., Speedy, D.B. Energy balance during an ironman triathlon in male and female triathletes. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2002; 12(1):47-62. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.12.1.47
Knechtle, B., Wirth, A., Rosemann, T. Predictors of race time in male ironman triathletes: physical characteristics, training, or prerace experience? Percept Mot Skills. 2010; 111(2):437-46. https://doi.org/10.2466/05.25.PMS.111.5.437-446
Kreider, R.B. Physiological considerations of ultraendurance performance. Int J Sport Nutr. 1991; 1(1):3-27. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsn.1.1.3
Lambert, M.I., Viljoen, W., Bosch, A., Pearce, A.J., Sayers, M. Chapter 1: General Principles of Training. In: MP Schwellnus. The Olympic Textbook of Medicine in Sport. Volume XIV of the Encyclopaedia of Sports Medicine. IOC Medical Commission Publication. West Sussex: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.; 2008.
Laursen, P.B. Training for intense exercise performance: high-intensity or high-volume training? Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2010; 20(2):1-10. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.01184.x
Laursen, P.B., Watson, G., Abbiss, C.R., Wall, B.A., Nosaka, K. Hyperthermic fatigue precedes a rapid reduction in serum sodium in an ironman triathlete: a case report. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2009; 4(4):533-7. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.4.4.533
Laursen, P.B., Rhodes, E.C., Langill, R.H., Mckenzie, D.C., Taunton, J.E. Relationship of exercise test variables to cycling performance in an Ironman triathlon. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2002; 87(4-5):433-40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-002-0659-4
Laursen, P.B., Rhodes, E.C. Factors affecting performance in an ultraendurance triathlon. Sports Med. 2001; 31(3):195-209. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200131030-00004
Laursen, P.B., Jenkins, D.G. The scientific basis for high-intensity interval training: optimising training programmes and maximising performance in highly trained endurance athletes. Sports Med. 2002; 32(1):53-73. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200232010-00003
Laursen, P.B., Suriano, R., Quod, M.J., Lee, H., Abbiss, C.R., Nosaka, K., Martin, D.T., Bishop, D. Core temperature and hydration status during an Ironman triathlon. Br J Sports Med. 2006; 40(4):320-5. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2005.022426
Laursen, P.B., Knez, W.L., Shing, C.M., Langill, R.H., Rhodes, E.C., Jenkins, D.G. Relationship between laboratory-measured variables and heart rate during an ultra-endurance triathlon. J Sports Sci. 2005; 23(10):1111-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410400023209
Lepers, R. Analysis of Hawaii ironman performances in elite triathletes from 1981 to 2007. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2008; 40(10):1828-34. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e31817e91a4
Lorenzo, S., Halliwill, J.R., Sawka, M.N., Minson, C.T. Heat acclimation improves exercise performance. J Appl Physiol. 2010; 109:1140–1147. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00495.2010
Millet, G.P., Dréano, P., Bentley, D.J. Physiological characteristics of elite short- and long-distance triathletes. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2003; 88(4-5):427-30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-002-0731-0
Mujika, I. Intense training: the key to optimal performance before and during the taper. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2010; 20(2):24-31. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.01189.x
Neubauer, O., König, D., Kern, N., Nics, L., Wagner, K.H. No indications of persistent oxidative stress in response to an ironman triathlon. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2008; 40(12):2119-28. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181824dab
Noakes, T.D. Changes in body mass alone explain almost all of the variance in the serum sodium concentrations during prolonged exercise. Has commercial influence impeded scientific endeavour? Br J Sports Med. 2010. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2010.075697
Noakes, T.D. Hydration in the marathon: using thirst to gauge safe fluid replacement. Sports Med. 2007; 37(4-5):463-6. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200737040-00050
Noakes, T.D. Oral fluids: how pseudoscience gulls the gullible. S Afr Med J. 2008; 98(6):410-412.
Noakes, T.D. The limits of endurance exercise. Basic Res Cardiol. 2006; 101:408–417. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00395-006-0607-2
Nosaka, K., Abbiss, C.R., Watson, G., Wall, B., Suzuki, K., Laursen, P. Recovery following an Ironman triathlon: A case study. European Journal of Sports Science. 2010; 10(3):159-165. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461390903426642
O'Toole, M.L., Douglas, P.S., Laird, R.H., Hiller, D.B. Fluid and electrolyte status in athletes receiving medical care at an ultradistance triathlon. Clin J Sport Med. 1995; 5(2):116-22. https://doi.org/10.1097/00042752-199504000-00008
O'Toole, M.L.Training for ultraendurance triathlons. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1989; 21(5): S209-13.
Pastene, J., Germain, M., Allevard, A.M., Et Al. Water balance during and after marathon running. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1996; 73:49–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00262808
Rauch, L.H., Rodger, I., Wilson, G.R., Belonje, J.D., Dennis, S.C., Noakes, T.D., Hawley, J.A. The effects of carbohydrate loading on muscle glycogen content and cycling performance. Int J Sport Nutr. 1995; 5(1):25-36. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsn.5.1.25
Sawka, M.N., Coyle, E.F. Influence of body water and blood volume on thermoregulation and exercise performance in the heat. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 1999; 27:167–218.
Schwellnus, M.P., Drew, N., Collins, M. Increased running speed and previous cramps rather than dehydration or serum sodium changes predict exercise-associated muscle cramping: a prospective cohort study in 210 Ironman triathletes. Br J Sports Med. 2010.
Schwellnus, M.P., Nicol, J., Laubscher, R., Et Al. Serum electrolyte concentrations and hydration status are not associated with exercise associated muscle cramping (EAMC) in distance runners. Br J Sports Med. 2004; 38:488–92. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2003.007021
Schwellnus, M.P., Derman, E.W., Noakes, T.D. Aetiology of skeletal muscle 'cramps' during exercise: a novel hypothesis. J Sports Sci. 1997; 15(3):277-85. https://doi.org/10.1080/026404197367281
Seiler, S. What is best practice for training intensity and duration distribution in endurance athletes? Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2010; 5(3):276-91. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.5.3.276
Sharwood, K.A., Collins, M., Goedecke, J.H., Wilson, G., Noakes, T.D. Weight changes, medical complications, and performance during an Ironman triathlon. Br J Sports Med. 2004; 38(6):718-24. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2003.007187
Sharwood, K., Collins, M., Goedecke, J., Wilson, G., Noakes, T. Weight changes, sodium levels, and performance in the South African Ironman Triathlon. Clin J Sport Med. 2002; 12(6):391-9. https://doi.org/10.1097/00042752-200211000-00012
Speedy, D.B., Faris, J.G., Hamlin, M., Gallagher, P.G., Campbell, R.G. Hyponatremia and weight changes in an ultradistance triathlon. Clin J Sport Med. 1997; 7(3):180-4. https://doi.org/10.1097/00042752-199707000-00005
Speedy, D.B., Noakes, T.D., Kimber, N.E., Rogers, I.R., Thompson, J.M., Boswell, D.R., Ross, J.J., Campbell, R.G., Gallagher, P.G., Kuttner, J.A. Fluid balance during and after an ironman triathlon. Clin J Sport Med. 2001; 11(1):44-50. https://doi.org/10.1097/00042752-200101000-00008
Speedy, D.B., Thompson, J.M., Rodgers, I., Collins, M., Sharwood, K., Noakes, T.D. Oral salt supplementation during ultradistance exercise. Clin J Sport Med. 2002; 12(5):279-84. https://doi.org/10.1097/00042752-200209000-00004
Spriet, L.L. Regulation of substrate use during the marathon. Sports Med. 2007; 37(4-5):332-6. https://doi.org/10.1097/00042752-200209000-00004
Sulzer, N.U., Schwellnus, M.P., Noakes, T.D. Serum electrolytes in Ironman triathletes with exercise-associated muscle cramping. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2005; 37:1081-5. https://doi.org/10.1249/01.mss.0000169723.79558.cf
Suzuki, K., Peake, J., Nosaka, K., Okutsu, M., Abbiss, C.R., Surriano, R., Bishop, D., Quod, M.J., Lee, H., Martin, D.T., Laursen, P.B. Changes in markers of muscle damage, inflammation and HSP70 after an Ironman Triathlon race. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2006; 98(6):525-34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-006-0296-4
Wagner, K.H., Reichhold, S., Hölzl, C., Knasmüller, S., Nics, L., Meisel, M., Neubauer, O. Well-trained, healthy triathletes experience no adverse health risks regarding oxidative stress and DNA damage by participating in an ultra-endurance event. Toxicology. 2010; 278(2):211-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2009.09.006
Wharam, P.C., Speedy, D.B., Noakes, T.D., Thompson, J.M., Reid, S.A., Holtzhausen, L.M. NSAID use increases the risk of developing hyponatremia during an Ironman triathlon. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006; 38(4):618-22. https://doi.org/10.1249/01.mss.0000210209.40694.09
Zouhal, H., Groussard, C., Minter, G., Vincent, S., Cretual, A., Gratas-Delamarche, A., Delamarche, P., Noakes, T.D. Inverse relationship between percentage body weight change and finishing time in 643 forty-two-kilometre marathon runners. Br J Sports Med. 2010. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2010.074641
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4100/jhse.2011.62.05
Copyright (c) 2011 Journal of Human Sport and Exercise
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.