Overcoming failure in sport: A self-forgiveness framework
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.14198/jhse.2019.142.01Keywords:
Self-forgiveness, Failure, Sport, AthletesAbstract
Within the winner or loser dichotomy that exemplifies competitive sport, athletic success hinges on the ability to overcome and respond constructively to failure. This article introduces self-forgiveness as an adaptive, purposeful approach to coping with competitive sport performance failure in a way that stimulates personal growth and combats loss of motivation. In contrast to defensive responses that shield self-integrity, genuine self-forgiveness is reached through a process in which athletes (a) accept personal responsibility for their role in the unsuccessful performance outcome and (b) restore self-regard by affirming the self. Although athletes expose themselves to uncomfortable emotional experiences associated with failure, self-forgiveness is proposed as a process that enables athletes to objectively evaluate unsuccessful performances, identify areas warranting improvement, and develop adaptive psychological recovery responses to failure.
Downloads
References
Association of Tennis Professionals World Tour. (2017). ATP rankings: Singles. Retrieved from http://www.atpworldtour.com/en/rankings/singles
Ball, D. (1976). Failure in sport. American Sociological Review, 41, 726-739. https://doi.org/10.2307/2094846
Bardel, M., Fontayne, P., Colombel, F., & Schiphof, L. (2010). Effects of match result and social comparison on sport state self-esteem fluctuations. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 11, 171-176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.01.005
Barnes, C., Carvallo, M., Brown, R., & Osterman, L. (2010). Forgiveness and the need to belong. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 1148-1160. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167210378852
Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Finkenauer, C., & Vohs, K. (2001). Bad is stronger than good. Review of General Psychology, 5, 323-370. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.5.4.323
Bell, C. M., Davis, D. E., Griffin, B. J., Ashby, J. S., & Rice, K. G. (2017). The promotion of self-forgiveness, responsibility, and willingness to make reparations through a workbook intervention. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 12, 571-578. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2016.1209545
Brady, S. T., Reeves, S. L., Garcia, J., Purdie-Vaughns, V., Cook, J. E., Taborsky-Barba, S., & ... Cohen, G. L. (2016). The psychology of the affirmed learner: Spontaneous self-affirmation in the face of stress. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108, 353-373. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000091
Carless, D., & Douglas, K. (2012). Stories of success: Cultural narratives and personal stories of elite and professional athletes. Reflective Practice, 13, 387-398. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623943.2012.657793
Connor-Smith, J., & Flachsbart, C. (2007). Relations between personality and coping: A meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 1080-1107. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.93.6.1080
Conroy, D., Poczwardowski, A., & Henschen, K. (2001). Evaluative criteria and consequences associated with failure and success for elite athletes and performing artists. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 13, 300-322. https://doi.org/10.1080/104132001753144428
Cornish, M. A., & Wade, N. G. (2015). Working through past wrongdoing: Examination of a self-forgiveness counseling intervention. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62, 521-528. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000080
Cowden, R. (2017). On the mental toughness of self-aware athletes: Evidence from competitive tennis athletes. South African Journal of Science, 113, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2017/20160112
Critcher, C. R., & Dunning, D. (2015). Self-affirmations provide a broader perspective on self-threat. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 41, 3-18. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167214554956
Crocker, J., Niiya, Y., & Mischkowski, D. (2008). Why does writing about important values reduce defensiveness? Self-affirmation and the role of positive other-directed feelings. Psychological Science, 19, 740-747. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02150.x
Crocker, J., & Park, L. E. (2004). The costly pursuit of self-esteem. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 392-414. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.392
Davis, D. E., Ho, M. Y., Griffin, B. J., Bell, C., Hook, J. N., Van Tongeren, D. R., & ... Westbrook, C. J. (2015). Forgiving the self and physical and mental health correlates: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62, 329-335. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000063
Emanuel, A. S., Howell, J. L., Taber, J. M., Ferrer, R. A., Klein, W. P., & Harris, P. R. (2018). Spontaneous self-affirmation is associated with psychological well-being: Evidence from a US national adult survey sample. Journal of Health Psychology, 23, 95-102. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105316643595
Exline, J., & Yadavalli, S. (2011). Reparative behaviors and self-forgiveness: Effects of a laboratory-based exercise. Self and Identity, 10, 101-126. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298861003669565
Ferguson, L. J., Kowalski, K. C., Mack, D. E., & Sabiston, C. M. (2015). Self-compassion and eudaimonic well-being during emotionally difficult times in sport. Journal of Happiness Studies, 16, 1263-1280. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-014-9558-8
Fletcher, D., & Scott, M. (2010). Psychological stress in sports coaches: A review of concepts, research, and practice. Journal of Sports Sciences, 28, 127-137. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410903406208
Fredrickson, B.L. (1998). What good are positive emotions? Review of General Psychology, 2, 300-319. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.300
Gottman, J. M. (1993). A theory of marital dissolution and stability. Journal of Family Psychology, 7, 57-75. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.7.1.57
Griffin, B. G., Worthington Jr., E. L., Lavelock, C. R., Greer, C. L., Yin, L., Davis, D. E., & Hook, J. N. (2015). Efficacy of a self-forgiveness workbook: A randomized controlled trial with interpersonal offenders. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62, 124-136. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000060
Hall, J., & Fincham, F. (2005). Self-forgiveness: The stepchild of forgiveness research. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 24, 621-637. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2005.24.5.621
Haney, C., & Long, B. (1995). Coping Effectiveness: A path analysis of self-efficacy, control, coping, and performance in sport competitions. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 25, 1726-1746. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1995.tb01815.x
Hook, J. N., Farrell, J. E., Davis, D. E., Van Tongeren, D. R., Griffin, B. J., Grubbs, J., & ... Bedics, J. D. (2015). Self-forgiveness and hypersexual behavior. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 22, 59-70. https://doi.org/10.1080/10720162.2014.1001542
Jacinto, G. A. (2010). The self-forgiveness process of caregivers after the death of care-receivers diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Social Service Research, 36, 24-36. https://doi.org/10.1080/01488370903333538
Joyce, Y., Smith, R., & Vitaliano, P. (2005). Stress-resilience, illness, and coping: A person-focused investigation of young women athletes. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 28, 257-265. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-005-4662-1
Krause, N. (2017). Religious involvement and self-forgiveness. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 20, 128-142. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2017.1326477
Law, K. C., & Chapman, A. L. (2015). Borderline personality features as a potential moderator of the effect of anger and depressive rumination on shame, self-blame, and self-forgiveness. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 46, 27-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2014.07.008
Lazarus, R. (2000). How emotions influence performance in competitive sports. The Sport Psychologist, 14, 229-252. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.14.3.229
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York, NY: Springer.
Lyons, G. C., Deane, F. P., Caputi, P., & Kelly, P. J. (2011). Spirituality and the treatment of substance use disorders: An exploration of forgiveness, resentment and purpose in life. Addiction Research and Theory, 19, 459-469. https://doi.org/10.3109/16066359.2011.555022
Martinent, G., Ledos, S., Ferrand, C., Campo, M., & Nicolas, M. (2015). Athletes' regulation of emotions experienced during competition: A naturalistic video-assisted study. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 4, 188-205. https://doi.org/10.1037/spy0000037
McConnell, J. M., & Dixon, D. N. (2012). Perceived forgiveness from God and self-forgiveness. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 31, 31-39.
Mosewich, A. D., Crocker, P. E., Kowalski, K. C., & DeLongis, A. (2013). Applying self-compassion in sport: An intervention with women athletes. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 35, 514-524. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.35.5.514
Neff, K. (2012). The science of self-compassion. In C. K. Germer & R. D. Siegel (Eds.), Wisdom and compassion in psychotherapy: Deepening mindfulness in clinical practice (pp. 79-92). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Nicholls, A., & Polman, R. (2007). Stressors, coping, and coping effectiveness among players from the England under-18 rugby union team. Journal of Sport Behavior, 30, 199-218.
Nicholls, A., Polman, R., & Levy, A. (2012). A path analysis of stress appraisals, emotions, coping, and performance satisfaction among athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13, 263-270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2011.12.003
Nicholls, A., Polman, R., Levy, A., & Borkoles, E. (2010). The mediating role of coping: A cross-sectional analysis of the relationship between coping self-efficacy and coping effectiveness among athletes. International Journal of Stress Management, 17, 181-192. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020064
Peterson, S. J., Van Tongeren, D. R., Womack, S. D., Hook, J. N., Davis, D. E., & Griffin, B. J. (2017). The benefits of self-forgiveness on mental health: Evidence from correlational and experimental research. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 12, 159-168. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2016.1163407
Romero, C., Kalidas, M., Elledge, R., Chang, J., Liscum, K. R., & Friedman, L. C. (2006). Self-forgiveness, spirituality, and psychological adjustment in women with breast cancer. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 29, 29-36. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-005-9038-z
Ryan, R. & Deci, E. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68
Ryan, R., Huta, V., & Deci, E. (2008). Living well: A self-determination theory perspective on eudaimonia. Journal of Happiness Studies, 9, 139-170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-006-9023-4
Sagar, S., Busch, K., & Jowett, K. (2010). Success and failure, fear of failure, and coping responses of adolescent academy football players. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 22, 213-230. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413201003664962
Sagar, S., Lavallee, D., & Spray, C. (2007). Why young elite athletes fear failure: Consequences of failure. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25, 1171-1184. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410601040093
Sagar, S., Lavallee, D., & Spray, C. (2009). Coping with the effects of fear of failure: A preliminary investigation of young elite athletes. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 3, 73-98. https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.3.1.73
Sagar, S., & Stoeber, J. (2009). Perfectionism, fear of failure, and affective responses to success and failure: The central role of fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 31, 602-627. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.31.5.602
Schmeichel, B. J., & Vohs, K. (2009). Self-affirmation and self-control: Affirming core values counteracts ego depletion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 770-782. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014635
Sherman, D. K., & Cohen, G. L. (2002). Accepting threatening information: Self-affirmation and the reduction of defensive biases. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 119-123. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00182
Sherman, D. K., & Cohen, G. L. (2006). The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.) Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 38, pp. 183-242). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Sherman, D. K., & Hartson, K. A. (2011). Reconciling self-protection with self-improvement: Self-affirmation theory. In M. Alicke & C. Sedikides (Eds.), The handbook of self-enhancement and self-protection (pp. 128-151). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Skinner, E., Edge, K., Altman, J., & Sherwood, H. (2003). Searching for the structure of coping: A review and critique of category systems for classifying ways of coping. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 216-269. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.2.216
Tamminen, K. A., Poucher, Z. A., & Povilaitis, V. (2017). The car ride home: An interpretive examination of parent–athlete sport conversations. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 6, 325-339. https://doi.org/10.1037/spy0000093
Toussaint, L., Barry, M., Angus, D., Bornfriend, L., & Markman, M. (2017). Self-forgiveness is associated with reduced psychological distress in cancer patients and unmatched caregivers: Hope and self-blame as mediating mechanisms. Journal of Psychosocial Oncology, 35, 544-560. https://doi.org/10.1080/07347332.2017.1309615
Wakslak, C. J., & Trope, Y. (2009). Cognitive consequences of affirming the self: The relationship between self-affirmation and object construal. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 927-932. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.05.002
Wenzel, M., Woodyatt, L. & Hedrick, K. (2012). No genuine self-forgiveness without accepting responsibility: Value reaffirmation as a key to maintaining positive self-regard. European Journal of Social Psychology, 42, 617-627. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.1873
Wilson, G., & Kerr, J. (1999). Affective responses to success and failure: A study of winning and losing in competitive rugby. Personality and Individual Differences, 27, 85-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00226-8
Wohl, M., DeShea, L., & Wahkinney, R. (2008). Looking within: Measuring state self-forgiveness and its relationship to psychological well-being. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 40, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1037/0008-400x.40.1.1.1
Woodyatt, L., & Wenzel, M. (2013). The psychological immune response in the face of transgressions: Pseudo self-forgiveness and threat to belonging. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49, 951-958. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2013.05.016
Woodyatt, L., & Wenzel, M. (2014). A needs-based perspective on self-forgiveness: Addressing threat to moral identity as a means of encouraging interpersonal and intrapersonal restoration. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 50, 125-135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2013.09.012
Woodyatt, L., Wenzel, M., & Ferber, M. (2017). Two pathways to self-forgiveness: A hedonic path via self-compassion and a eudaimonic path via the reaffirmation of violated values. British Journal of Social Psychology, 56, 515-536. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12194
Woodyatt, L., Worthington, E. L., Jr., Wenzel, M., & Griffin, B. J. (Eds.). (2017). Handbook of the psychology of self-forgiveness. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60573-9
Zhong, Y., Chen, Z., Luo, X., Wang, X., & Yi, W. (2014). Effects of self-affirmation on self-esteem and self-evaluation. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 22, 390-393.
Downloads
Statistics
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2019 Journal of Human Sport and Exercise
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Each author warrants that his or her submission to the Work is original and that he or she has full power to enter into this agreement. Neither this Work nor a similar work has been published elsewhere in any language nor shall be submitted for publication elsewhere while under consideration by JHSE. Each author also accepts that the JHSE will not be held legally responsible for any claims of compensation.
Authors wishing to include figures or text passages that have already been published elsewhere are required to obtain permission from the copyright holder(s) and to include evidence that such permission has been granted when submitting their papers. Any material received without such evidence will be assumed to originate from the authors.
Please include at the end of the acknowledgements a declaration that the experiments comply with the current laws of the country in which they were performed. The editors reserve the right to reject manuscripts that do not comply with the abovementioned requirements. The author(s) will be held responsible for false statements or failure to fulfill the above-mentioned requirements.
This title is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
You are free to share, copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format. The licensor cannot revoke these freedoms as long as you follow the license terms under the following terms:
Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
NonCommercial — You may not use the material for commercial purposes.
NoDerivatives — If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you may not distribute the modified material.
No additional restrictions — You may not apply legal terms or technological measures that legally restrict others from doing anything the license permits.
Notices:
You do not have to comply with the license for elements of the material in the public domain or where your use is permitted by an applicable exception or limitation.
No warranties are given. The license may not give you all of the permissions necessary for your intended use. For example, other rights such as publicity, privacy, or moral rights may limit how you use the material.
Transfer of Copyright
In consideration of JHSE’s publication of the Work, the authors hereby transfer, assign, and otherwise convey all copyright ownership worldwide, in all languages, and in all forms of media now or hereafter known, including electronic media such as CD-ROM, Internet, and Intranet, to JHSE. If JHSE should decide for any reason not to publish an author’s submission to the Work, JHSE shall give prompt notice of its decision to the corresponding author, this agreement shall terminate, and neither the author nor JHSE shall be under any further liability or obligation.
Each author certifies that he or she has no commercial associations (e.g., consultancies, stock ownership, equity interest, patent/licensing arrangements, etc.) that might pose a conflict of interest in connection with the submitted article, except as disclosed on a separate attachment. All funding sources supporting the Work and all institutional or corporate affiliations of the authors are acknowledged in a footnote in the Work.
Each author certifies that his or her institution has approved the protocol for any investigation involving humans or animals and that all experimentation was conducted in conformity with ethical and humane principles of research.
Competing Interests
Biomedical journals typically require authors and reviewers to declare if they have any competing interests with regard to their research.
JHSE require authors to agree to Copyright Notice as part of the submission process.
